The Judicial Branch
The federal judiciary interprets the Constitution and federal law, resolving disputes and protecting individual rights. At its apex sits the Supreme Court of the United States — the final arbiter of American law.
Equal Justice Under Law
Article III of the Constitution establishes the judicial branch, vesting the judicial power of the United States in one Supreme Court and such inferior courts as Congress may establish. Federal judges are appointed for life, insulating them from political pressure.
The federal court system has three tiers: 94 district courts (trial courts), 13 courts of appeals (circuit courts), and the Supreme Court. Cases typically begin at the district level and may be appealed upward.
The Supreme Court's power of judicial review — established in Marbury v. Madison (1803) — allows it to strike down laws that violate the Constitution. This power is not explicitly stated in the Constitution but has become a cornerstone of American democracy.
Supreme Court of the United States
Nine justices — one Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices — serve lifetime appointments. The Court hears approximately 60–80 cases per year from roughly 7,000–8,000 petitions.
9
Justices
1 Chief + 8 Associate
~70
Cases Heard / Year
From ~8,000 petitions
1789
Founded
Judiciary Act of 1789
Lifetime
Term Length
During good behavior
The Nine Justices
Justices are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. They serve until retirement, death, or impeachment.
John G. Roberts Jr.
Chief Justice
Appointed: 2005 by George W. Bush
Prior role: U.S. Court of Appeals, D.C. Circuit
Authored NFIB v. Sebelius (ACA ruling); presided over two Trump impeachment trials
View full profile →Clarence Thomas
Associate Justice
Appointed: 1991 by George H.W. Bush
Prior role: U.S. Court of Appeals, D.C. Circuit
Longest-serving current justice; known for originalist jurisprudence
View full profile →Samuel A. Alito Jr.
Associate Justice
Appointed: 2006 by George W. Bush
Prior role: U.S. Court of Appeals, 3rd Circuit
Authored Dobbs v. Jackson (overturning Roe v. Wade)
View full profile →Sonia Sotomayor
Associate Justice
Appointed: 2009 by Barack Obama
Prior role: U.S. Court of Appeals, 2nd Circuit
First Hispanic and Latina justice; known for empathy-based jurisprudence
View full profile →Elena Kagan
Associate Justice
Appointed: 2010 by Barack Obama
Prior role: U.S. Solicitor General
First Solicitor General elevated directly to the Court
View full profile →Neil M. Gorsuch
Associate Justice
Appointed: 2017 by Donald Trump
Prior role: U.S. Court of Appeals, 10th Circuit
Authored Bostock v. Clayton County (LGBTQ+ workplace protections)
View full profile →Brett M. Kavanaugh
Associate Justice
Appointed: 2018 by Donald Trump
Prior role: U.S. Court of Appeals, D.C. Circuit
Confirmed after contentious Senate hearings; often a swing vote
View full profile →Amy Coney Barrett
Associate Justice
Appointed: 2020 by Donald Trump
Prior role: U.S. Court of Appeals, 7th Circuit
Confirmed 8 days before 2020 election; former Notre Dame law professor
View full profile →Ketanji Brown Jackson
Associate Justice
Appointed: 2022 by Joe Biden
Prior role: U.S. Court of Appeals, D.C. Circuit
First Black woman to serve on the Supreme Court
View full profile →Three-Tier Court System
The federal judiciary is organized into three levels. Most cases begin at the district level and may be appealed upward.
Supreme Court of the United States
Court of Last ResortThe final authority on federal law and the Constitution. Hears cases by certiorari — it chooses which cases to accept. Its decisions are binding on all lower courts.
- ~7,000–8,000 petitions/year
- Accepts ~60–80 cases
- Majority opinion is binding law
- Can overturn prior decisions
U.S. Courts of Appeals
Appellate CourtsReview decisions from district courts within their circuit. They do not hold trials — they review the record and determine if legal errors were made.
- 12 regional circuits + Federal Circuit
- 3-judge panels typically
- No new evidence or witnesses
- Decisions binding in their circuit
U.S. District Courts
Trial CourtsThe trial courts of the federal system. They hear both civil and criminal cases, conduct jury trials, and make initial rulings on facts and law.
- At least one in every state
- Handle ~400,000 cases/year
- Jury trials held here
- Magistrate judges assist
The 13 Federal Circuits
Twelve regional circuits cover geographic areas; the Federal Circuit has nationwide jurisdiction over specialized cases.
1st Circuit
Boston, MA
Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Puerto Rico
2nd Circuit
New York, NY
Connecticut, New York, Vermont
3rd Circuit
Philadelphia, PA
Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, U.S. Virgin Islands
4th Circuit
Richmond, VA
Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia
5th Circuit
New Orleans, LA
Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas
6th Circuit
Cincinnati, OH
Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, Tennessee
7th Circuit
Chicago, IL
Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin
8th Circuit
St. Louis, MO
Arkansas, Iowa, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota
9th Circuit
San Francisco, CA
Alaska, Arizona, California, Hawaii, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, Guam, N. Mariana Islands
10th Circuit
Denver, CO
Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Utah, Wyoming
11th Circuit
Atlanta, GA
Alabama, Florida, Georgia
D.C. Circuit
Washington, D.C.
Washington, D.C.
Federal Circuit
Washington, D.C.
Nationwide — patents, international trade, federal claims, veterans appeals
Cases That Shaped America
These Supreme Court decisions fundamentally altered American law, society, and the relationship between citizens and government.
Marbury v. Madison
1803
Holding
Established the principle of judicial review — the Court's power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution.
Significance: Foundation of the entire judicial review doctrine; arguably the most important case in U.S. history.
McCulloch v. Maryland
1819
Holding
Congress has implied powers beyond those explicitly listed; states cannot tax federal institutions.
Significance: Established broad federal power and the supremacy of federal law over state law.
Dred Scott v. Sandford
1857
Holding
Enslaved people were not citizens and had no right to sue; Congress could not prohibit slavery in territories.
Significance: Widely considered the worst Supreme Court decision; helped precipitate the Civil War. Overturned by the 14th Amendment.
Plessy v. Ferguson
1896
Holding
Racial segregation was constitutional under the separate but equal doctrine.
Significance: Upheld Jim Crow laws for 58 years until overturned by Brown v. Board of Education.
Brown v. Board of Education
1954
Holding
Racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional; separate but equal has no place in education.
Significance: Overturned Plessy v. Ferguson; landmark victory for the Civil Rights Movement.
Miranda v. Arizona
1966
Holding
Police must inform suspects of their rights before custodial interrogation.
Significance: Created the Miranda warning now standard in every U.S. arrest.
Roe v. Wade
1973
Holding
The Constitution protects a right to abortion under the right to privacy.
Significance: Established abortion rights for 49 years; overturned by Dobbs v. Jackson (2022).
United States v. Nixon
1974
Holding
The President is not immune from judicial process; executive privilege is not absolute.
Significance: Led directly to Nixon's resignation; established that no person is above the law.
Bush v. Gore
2000
Holding
The Florida recount order violated the Equal Protection Clause; no constitutional recount was possible in time.
Significance: Effectively decided the 2000 presidential election in favor of George W. Bush.
Obergefell v. Hodges
2015
Holding
Same-sex couples have a fundamental right to marry under the 14th Amendment.
Significance: Legalized same-sex marriage nationwide; landmark LGBTQ+ rights decision.
Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health
2022
Holding
The Constitution does not confer a right to abortion; the issue is returned to the states.
Significance: Overturned Roe v. Wade; most consequential ruling in decades.
Trump v. United States
2024
Holding
Presidents have absolute immunity for core constitutional acts and presumptive immunity for official acts.
Significance: Dramatically expanded presidential immunity from prosecution.
How a Case Reaches the Supreme Court
The path from a legal dispute to a Supreme Court ruling typically takes years and passes through multiple levels of review.
Legal Dispute Arises
A party believes their federal rights have been violated — by a law, government action, or another party's conduct.
U.S. District Court
The case is filed in federal district court. A judge (and sometimes jury) hears evidence, applies the law, and issues a ruling.
U.S. Court of Appeals
The losing party may appeal. A three-judge panel reviews the district court record for legal errors — no new evidence is introduced.
Petition for Certiorari
The losing party petitions the Supreme Court to hear the case. The Court receives roughly 7,000–8,000 such petitions each year.
Rule of Four
At least four of the nine justices must vote to grant certiorari. The Court accepts roughly 60–80 cases per term.
Oral Arguments
Each side presents a 30-minute oral argument before all nine justices, who may ask questions at any time.
Conference and Vote
The justices meet in private conference to discuss and vote. The most senior justice in the majority assigns who writes the opinion.
Opinion Issued
The majority opinion becomes binding law. Concurring and dissenting opinions may also be published. The decision is final.
Explore All Three Branches
The judicial branch works alongside Congress and the President to form the complete system of American constitutional government.